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  General Pharmacology Pharmacology   is the science dealing with biochemical and physiologic aspects of drug effects, including   absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination,  toxicity doses, and specific mechanisms of drug action.  Pharmacology includes three major divisions: theoretical (general), experimental, and clinical. Theoretical pharmacology touches upon common regularities of interactions of drugs with an organism. Experimental pharmacology investigates drugs influence on the organism of animals. Clinical pharmacology examines drugs influence on the organism of patient. Pharmacotherapy studies the use of medicaments for cure of a concrete illness. Some branches of pharmacology are different sciences: phytotherapy, toxicology, vitaminology, endocrinology, and chemotherapy.  Pharmacology is closely connected with pharmacy. Pharmacology is based on the advances of physics, chemistry, biology, biochemistry, physiology for the explanation of dr...

  Anatomy of the liver The liver is located in the upper right-hand portion of the abdominal cavity, beneath the diaphragm, and on top of the stomach, right kidney, and intestines. Shaped like a cone, the liver is a dark reddish-brown organ that weighs about 3 pounds. There are 2 distinct sources that supply blood to the liver, including the following: Oxygenated blood flows in from the hepatic artery Nutrient-rich blood flows in from the hepatic portal vein The liver holds about one pint (13%) of the body's blood supply at any given moment. The liver consists of 2 main lobes. Both are made up of 8 segments that consist of 1,000 lobules (small lobes). These lobules are connected to small ducts (tubes) that connect with larger ducts to form the common hepatic duct. The common hepatic duct transports the bile made by the liver cells to the gallbladder and duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) via the common bile duct. Functions of the liver The liver regulates mo...

  External Anatomy The paired kidneys lie on either side of the spine in the retroperitoneal space between the parietal peritoneum and the posterior abdominal wall, well protected by muscle, fat, and ribs. The left kidney is located at about the T12 to L3 vertebrae, whereas the right is lower due to slight displacement by the liver. Upper portions of the kidneys are somewhat protected by the eleventh and twelfth ribs (Figure 25.1.1). Each kidney weighs about 125–175 g in males and 115–155 g in females. They are about 11–14 cm in length, 6 cm wide, and 4 cm thick, and are directly covered by a fibrous capsule composed of dense, irregular connective tissue that helps to hold their shape and protect them. This capsule is covered by a shock-absorbing layer of adipose tissue called the  renal fat pad , which in turn is encompassed by a tough renal fascia. The fascia and, to a lesser extent, the overlying peritoneum serve to firmly anchor the kidneys to the posterior abdominal ...